It was unlikely that an invasion would ever have a peaceful ending, especially one marked by impossible alliances and hidden betrayals. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire ultimately ended in victory, but it came at a heavy, bloody cost for all sides involved.

The fall of the Mexica or Aztec Empire in 1521 is tied to some of the most brutal and unforgettable episodes of the conquest of the New World. Among the many names associated with this chapter, one figure stands out beyond Hernán Cortés himself: Pedro de Alvarado.

Alvarado, the right-hand man of the ambitious Extremaduran nobleman who had transformed into one of Spain’s leading explorers, became infamous across Mesoamerica. He was known among the indigenous people as “el Sol” (“the Sun”) or “Tonatiuh” in the Nahuatl language.

Alvarado’s distinctive wavy blond hair, fair skin, and towering height made many indigenous people mistake him for a divine being. Yet this illusion did not last long, as his violent actions soon revealed his true nature as a ruthless, ambitious, and feared conqueror.

Even his fellow soldiers regarded him with a mixture of admiration and fear. Pedro de Alvarado was a strong but merciless leader whose unchecked ambition and brutality marked his legacy, leaving behind a trail of destruction that hastened the Mexica Empire’s downfall.

His deeds became notorious for two pivotal events: the brutal massacre of unarmed indigenous nobles during the Tóxcatl festival in Tenochtitlan, and the catastrophic retreat of Spanish forces on La Noche Triste, which marked the irreversible beginning of the end.

Moctezuma is arrested

On November 8, 1519, Hernán Cortés finally entered the grand Mexica capital of Tenochtitlán, where he came face to face with Emperor Moctezuma II. The encounter was charged with tension, as the Spaniards represented both awe-inspiring strangers and an ominous threat.

Around the same time, letters arrived from Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz with grim news: Juan de Escalante, the captain Cortés had left in charge of Veracruz, had been killed in battle, along with six of his officers, at the hands of Mexica warriors defending their land.

Only six days after they arrived in Tenochtitlán, the Spaniards acted under the pretext of avenging Escalante. Using this excuse, Cortés and his men decided to take a bold step that shocked the empire – they seized Emperor Moctezuma and placed him under guard.

At dawn, Cortés and five of his captains – Pedro de Alvarado, Gonzalo de Sandoval, Juan Velázquez de León, Francisco de Lugo, and Alonso de Ávila – along with their translators, Doña Marina and Jerónimo de Aguilar, armed themselves and marched toward the palace.

Once inside, Cortés confronted Moctezuma directly. Through Doña Marina, he accused the emperor of betraying their fragile alliance by attacking his allies. Cortés then demanded an explanation and insisted that Moctezuma accompany him to another palace under Spanish guard.

Moctezuma strongly denied giving such orders, insisting he would immediately send trusted captains to investigate and punish those responsible. Yet, sensing that refusal meant death, he reluctantly complied with the Spaniards, though deeply humiliated.

From the very first day of his confinement, Moctezuma was placed in shackles, a shocking humiliation for the once mighty emperor. The sudden loss of his freedom marked a turning point, revealing to all that the Spaniards now held the true balance of power.

The indigenous chronicler Chimalpahin later described the scene vividly: “As soon as the Spaniards entered Mexico, without facing resistance, they bound Moteuhczomatzin, locked him in his own home, and even placed heavy irons on his feet to humiliate him.”

This fate was not Moctezuma’s alone. His own brother, Cacamatzin of Texcoco, as well as Itzcuauhtzin, the respected military leader of Tlatelolco, were also detained. The Spanish strategy was clear: cripple the Mexica leadership to weaken any chance of resistance.

Despite his captivity, Moctezuma did not live as a common prisoner. He continued to receive food, gifts, visits from his people, and was still served by his attendants and concubines. Yet this arrangement created unease among nobles who saw it as dishonorable.

The emperor, hoping to avoid bloodshed, urged his people to remain calm and not provoke the Spaniards. He warned that any uprising in Tenochtitlán could worsen the situation. Still, his plea for patience was ignored, and unrest soon began to spread like fire.

The Tóxcatl massacre

Among the most sacred dates in the Mexica calendar was the Tóxcatl festival, a celebration marking the season of drought. Dedicated to the gods Huitzilopochtli, Tláloc, and Tezcatlipoca, it was held in hopes of bringing life-giving rain to fertilize the land.

Traditionally observed between May and June, the festival was a time of absolute peace – warfare and violence were strictly forbidden. Instead, the people dressed in their finest garments and jewels, sang ceremonial songs, played music, and danced in reverence.

In May 1520, as preparations for Tóxcatl filled Tenochtitlán with song and expectation, Hernán Cortés was forced to leave the city. He marched to confront Pánfilo de Narváez, another Spanish captain who had been sent with orders to arrest him and stop his campaign.

During Cortés’ absence, command of the Spanish forces in Tenochtitlán fell to his trusted but feared lieutenant, Pedro de Alvarado. Known for his ambition and violent temper, Alvarado now held enormous power in the heart of the Mexica capital.

Alvarado’s duties were twofold: he was tasked with guarding Moctezuma II, who had been confined under the guise of friendship in his father Axayácatl’s former palace, and with ensuring peace among the Mexica, who grew restless under the Spanish presence.

Yet, for reasons that remain debated – fear of rebellion, miscommunication, or sheer cruelty – Alvarado ordered a sudden assault during the sacred festival. His soldiers brutally massacred nobles, priests, and dancers alike, staining Tenochtitlán with blood.

The massacre at the Templo Mayor

As the Tóxcatl festival reached its height and the courtyard of the Templo Mayor overflowed with celebrants dancing, singing, and beating drums, Spanish soldiers, supported by their Totonac and Tlaxcalan allies, suddenly launched a brutal and unexpected attack.

Men, women, and even children who had come peacefully to honor their gods were mercilessly cut down. The massacre was indiscriminate, sparing no one in the sacred gathering. The music and chants of devotion turned instantly into cries of terror and despair.

Blood quickly flooded the temple grounds as Alvarado and his soldiers struck without restraint. While the bodies of the slain piled up, the Spaniards began looting the glittering jewels, ornaments, and sacred finery that adorned the victims of their violence.

Mexica codices preserve chilling accounts of the horror. Some celebrants were struck from behind, their entrails spilling to the ground. Others had their skulls smashed open, while many tried to flee, stumbling on their own intestines as they collapsed.

The ruthless massacre shattered the illusion of peace and horrified the Mexica people. Outrage spread rapidly through Tenochtitlán, uniting nobles, warriors, and commoners alike. This betrayal ignited an irreversible rebellion against the Spanish invaders.

The uprising and Moctezuma’s death

For the first time since the Spaniards had arrived in Mexico, the Aztec people finally rose in open revolt. Gripped by rage over the Tóxcatl massacre, they armed themselves and struck back with determination, determined to drive the intruders from their city.

The fighting grew fierce and relentless, forcing the Spaniards to abandon the streets and retreat into their stronghold: the former palace of Axayácatl, which they had converted into a fortress. The Mexica surrounded them, even attempting to burn it down.

Despite the siege, Moctezuma remained imprisoned inside the Spanish quarters, a hostage in his own capital. Upon returning to Tenochtitlán, Hernán Cortés ordered the emperor to appear before his people and demand peace, hoping his voice still carried authority.

But by then, Moctezuma was no longer regarded as a sovereign ruler. To the Mexica, he had become a puppet of the invaders, a leader who had failed to protect his empire. When he appeared on a rooftop, his people turned on him, shouting curses of betrayal.

Stones and arrows rained down on the emperor. Struck by multiple projectiles, Moctezuma fell gravely wounded. According to Spanish accounts, he soon succumbed to these injuries. Yet indigenous chronicles insist he was slain by the Spaniards beforehand.

Conflicting reports of his death endure as one of the most haunting mysteries of the conquest. Whether slain by his own people or murdered by the Spaniards to remove a liability, the demise of Moctezuma marked a turning point that changed history forever.

La Noche Triste – The Sorrowful Night

For an entire month, the Spaniards remained trapped within Tenochtitlán, facing dwindling supplies, rising tension, and no viable escape. The Mexica had dismantled bridges and fortified the city, making every attempt to flee increasingly desperate and fraught with danger.

Finally, Cortés ordered a bold and risky retreat, insisting his men carry as much Aztec gold as they could seize. Every step was perilous, yet the lure of treasure outweighed caution. Supplies were scarce, spirits were low, and the city around them simmered with anger and resistance.

On the rainy night of June 30, 1520, under the cover of darkness, the Spanish forces began their desperate flight. But their movement did not go unnoticed. Mexica warriors, alerted to the escape, quickly mobilized, surrounding the fleeing Spaniards and cutting off their path.

The waters of Lake Texcoco teemed with canoes bristling with indigenous warriors. Arrows and darts rained down on the retreating column. Chaos erupted as soldiers, allies, and porters struggled across makeshift bridges while being struck from all sides.

The retreat quickly turned into a massacre. Hundreds of Spaniards and their Tlaxcalan allies were slain, many falling into the lake. The stolen gold, heavy and cumbersome, dragged some under the water, sealing their fate even as they tried desperately to escape.

By dawn, more than six hundred Spaniards and an uncounted number of Tlaxcalteca allies had perished. The survivors staggered toward Tlaxcala, battered but alive, ready to regroup and plan the final campaign that, a year later, would bring the Mexica Empire crashing down.