When the Aztecs founded Tenochtitlan in 1325, it stood on islands in Lake Texcoco. The city was surrounded by other lakes – Xochimilco, Chalco, Xumpango, Zumpango – forming one water system. Canals and causeways linked the city, shaping its unique urban landscape.

Daily life in Tenochtitlan was bustling and vibrant. Markets overflowed with cacao, maize, and exotic goods. Canoes glided along canals filled with merchants and artisans. Festivals marked the calendar, blending religion, politics, and social life into the heart of the city.

Temples, plazas, and palaces formed the ceremonial heart of Tenochtitlan. Festivals honored gods, blending religious rituals with music, dance, and human offerings. These events reinforced social hierarchy, political authority, and communal identity in the vibrant city.

The Aztecs built a remarkable hydraulic system.

Canals served as main streets where canoes carried people and goods. Along the causeways ran roads connecting the island city to the mainland. On the water, farmers built chinampas – floating gardens – where maize, vegetables, and flowers flourished year-round.

The surrounding lakes and canals shaped not only the city’s economy but also its defense. Causeways allowed strategic movement, while floating gardens ensured food security. Mexico City’s watery layout made it both a thriving trade hub and a fortress against enemies.

Dams regulated water levels, aqueducts brought fresh water from Chapultepec, and chinampas produced enough food to feed tens of thousands. Their urban planning and water management made Tenochtitlan resilient and highly productive, even amid a lake-filled environment.

In August 1521, after three months of siege, Tenochtitlan fell. The Spaniards, with allies from Tlaxcala, destroyed much of the city. Palaces and temples burned, pyramids collapsed, and canals were filled with rubble. Yet parts of the Aztec system remained in use.

The Spanish conquest and a city rebuilt on ruins

Cortés quickly rebuilt a center of power on the ruins. The main square of Tenochtitlan, once home to the Templo Mayor, became Plaza de la Constitución – today’s Zócalo. Here rose the cathedral, cabildo, and viceroy’s palace, built from Aztec pyramid stones.

The new city followed a Spanish model: a grid of cuadras and manzanas, with streets converging on the main square. Gradually, block by block, houses, monasteries, and churches were built. First parishes appeared: San Juan, San Pablo, and San Sebastián.

Mexico City in the 16th century was still small, tied closely to its watery setting. Canals served as streets, with canoes bringing food and goods. Spaniards built monasteries of Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustinians. By the century’s end, 60,000 lived there.

The city still resembled a Venice of the Americas. Mexico rested on islands in Lake Texcoco, linked by causeways. For decades, canals remained vital: canoes carried produce from chinampas. The Spanish kept this system, though floods often devastated the city.

Key constructions of the 16th century included the early Metropolitan Cathedral foundations, the Cabildo hall, convents like San Francisco and Santa María la Redonda, and the first marketplaces. These buildings established the core of colonial administration and religious life.

The 17th-century transformation

In the 17th century, Mexico City expanded beyond its original island base. Around Spanish quarters grew barrios – native and artisan districts that bustled with daily work. Churches, monasteries, and hospitals were built, forming a vast colonial urban landscape.

Floods have turned Mexico City into a swamp many times. Disastrous inundations struck in 1555, 1607, and 1629, forcing authorities to rethink the city’s long-term survival. Still, throughout the 16th century, canals and lakes remained the essential lifeblood of urban life.

From time to time, the city faced floods that threatened its very existence. To save it, massive drainage projects were initiated. The most famous was the long Nochistongo canal, dug to divert valley waters. Though imperfect, it marked a crucial turning point in survival.

By then, Mexico City had more than 100,000 permanent inhabitants, making it the largest city in all the Americas. Despite floods, disease, and hardship, it steadily grew into a dominant colonial capital, a thriving center of political, religious, and cultural life.

New landmarks appeared across the city during this century. The Hospital de Jesús was expanded, churches like La Santísima and San Bernardo were built, and convents such as San Jerónimo rose. These institutions shaped both the spiritual and civic heart of Mexico.

The golden age of colonial Mexico: the City of Palaces

In the 18th century, Mexico entered its celebrated golden age. The city was called “Ciudad de los Palacios,” the City of Palaces. Nobles and clergy built grand mansions with elaborate Mexican Baroque façades, giving the capital its distinctive architectural charm.

New institutions appeared: a university, schools, and bustling central markets. Canals gave way to busy streets, and the city expanded outward, steadily absorbing villages and monastic centers such as Coyoacán, San Ángel, and Tacuba, weaving them into its urban fabric.

With nearly 200,000 inhabitants, Mexico became the largest city in the Americas. Its mix of Spanish and native settlements fueled continuous expansion. The historic center displayed Baroque and later Neoclassical façades, strong symbols of colonial wealth and power.

Important landmarks rose in this century. The Metropolitan Cathedral reached completion, and the Palace of the Inquisition became a striking symbol of ecclesiastical authority. The College of San Ildefonso expanded, strengthening Mexico City as an intellectual hub.

Urban life was also enriched by new civic and cultural spaces. The Alameda Central was remodeled into a refined public park, markets such as El Parián flourished, and theaters opened their doors. These projects gave colonial Mexico City its enduring grandeur.

A European-style capital rising in the 19th century

By the 19th century, Lake Texcoco had almost vanished. The heart of Mexico City now rested firmly on dry land. Canals were mostly replaced by paved stone streets, though occasional flooding still persisted. The urban plan resembled a European capital, layered with history.

On the ruins of Tenochtitlan arose the Viceregal Mexico – the City of Palaces. Yet beneath its heavy stone streets and cathedrals still lie the foundations of the Aztec capital, buried but never forgotten, awaiting rediscovery with every excavation and modern dig.

During the 19th century, Mexico City gained new landmarks and districts. The Alameda Central park was redesigned, Paseo de la Reforma was laid out, and barrios like La Merced and San Cosme grew. The National Palace was remodeled, while theaters and markets flourished.

Surviving traces of Tenochtitlan in modern Mexico City

Beneath today’s streets and buildings, many Aztec foundations remain undiscovered. Excavations often reveal pottery, tools, and stone structures. Modern Mexico City is literally layered over centuries of history, blending pre-Hispanic, colonial, and contemporary urban life.

Stones from the pyramids of Tenochtitlan were reused in the construction of the Metropolitan Cathedral, creating a tangible and visible link between the Aztec past and the colonial present. Visitors can still see subtle remnants hidden beneath the church floors today.

The ruins of Templo Mayor have been excavated next to the Metropolitan Cathedral and are open to the public. Visitors can explore the remnants of this central Aztec temple, learning about its religious and political significance in the heart of ancient Tenochtitlan.

Partial remains of the original dams and canals built by the Aztecs survive in areas such as Iztapalapa and Xochimilco. These structures provide insight into the city’s complex water management system, essential for transportation and daily life in a city built on lakes.

The famous chinampas, created by the Aztecs for agriculture, are still in use today in Xochimilco. These artificial islands continue to produce maize, vegetables, and flowers, preserving centuries-old farming techniques while offering a glimpse into pre-Hispanic urban ecology.

Many of the original Aztec temples and palaces remain buried beneath colonial and modern buildings. Archaeologists continue to uncover their foundations during excavations, revealing hidden layers of Tenochtitlan’s ceremonial and administrative heart.

Mexico City largely follows the original island layout of Tenochtitlan. Although the canals have been replaced by paved streets, the general grid pattern preserves the spatial organization of the ancient city, reflecting how the colonial city adapted pre-Hispanic urban planning.