The Arrival of Hernán Cortés in Mexico: A Historical Transformation

Hernán Cortés landed in Veracruz in April 1519 with approximately 500 men, 16 horses, and several cannons. His initial goal was not conquest but to expand explorations and establish trade contacts.

However, it soon became clear that his mission would take a more ambitious turn when he learned of the powerful Aztec Empire, ruled by Moctezuma II from the city of Tenochtitlán.

This stage of the conquest was marked by strategic alliances with the indigenous.

Tlaxcalans, who had been subjugated by the Aztecs, saw an opportunity in Cortés and his men to liberate themselves from Aztec domination, which had imposed heavy tributes and utilized their people for human sacrifices.

This alliance was crucial for Cortés’ eventual success.

One key event was the reception of the Spaniards in Tenochtitlán in November 1519. Moctezuma initially adopted a conciliatory stance, perhaps influenced by religious beliefs that considered Cortés and his men to be the reincarnation of gods.

However, tensions quickly escalated, and in 1520, violence erupted in what is known today as La Noche Triste, when the Spaniards were forced to flee the city after an Aztec uprising. Nonetheless, this would only be a temporary setback in Cortés’ plans.

After regrouping and reorganizing, Cortés returned to Tenochtitlán in 1521 with a reinforced army, comprising both Spaniards and thousands of indigenous warriors.

The siege of the city lasted several months, and diseases brought by Europeans, particularly smallpox, devastated the Aztec population, weakening their capacity to resist. On August 13, 1521, Tenochtitlán fell to the conquerors.

This event marked the end of the Aztec Empire and the beginning of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, a vast territorial entity that encompassed not only present-day Mexico but also much of Central and North America.

Spanish dominance was not limited to resource extraction and exploitation of indigenous labor. From the outset, colonizers set out to build an infrastructure that not only facilitated political and military control but also contributed to the development of society.

Cities, universities, churches, and cathedrals were constructed throughout the viceroyalty, following the Spanish urban model. Mexico City, rebuilt after the destruction of Tenochtitlán, quickly became the administrative and cultural center of the colony.

In 1551, the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico was founded, one of the first in the Americas, becoming a bastion of knowledge and education for the elites of New Spain.

The construction of cathedrals, such as the imposing Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City, exemplifies the effort to impose not only political dominance but also religious influence.

Evangelization was an essential part of colonization, with religious orders like the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits playing a crucial role in converting indigenous peoples to Christianity.

Over the centuries, Hernán Cortés and the process of conquest have been subjects of intense debate.

One of the terms most associated with this period is the “Black Legend,” a concept referring to the negative image of Spain, largely promoted by its European rivals, especially England and the Netherlands.

According to this view, Spaniards were depicted as brutal oppressors, enslavers, and destroyers of cultures.

While this Black Legend is based on certain historical facts, it simplifies and demonizes Spain’s role in America.

Although there was indeed violence, exploitation, and abuses, it is undeniable that the arrival of the Spaniards brought significant contributions in terms of infrastructure, political organization, and cultural development.

The mixing of European and indigenous cultures generated a new identity in the region, which remains one of the defining elements of contemporary Mexican society.

Historians like Hugh Thomas and John Elliott have approached this subject from a more balanced perspective, emphasizing that the conquest was a complex process involving multiple actors and motivations.

Although the Black Legend persists in some discourses, it has been criticized for being a one-sided and biased view.

The Viceroyalty of New Spain was one of the primary administrative divisions of the Spanish Empire, encompassing not only Mexico but also much of what is now the United States, Central America, and the Caribbean islands.

The viceroyalty was governed by a viceroy, a direct representative of the Spanish monarch, who held extensive administrative, judicial, and military powers.

The administrative structure of the viceroyalty was designed to ensure effective control over the vast territories under Spanish rule. In addition to the viceroy, there were audiences, which acted as courts of justice and regional governments.

The Catholic Church played a crucial role in administration and social organization, serving as both an instrument of evangelization and a pillar of colonial order.

New Spain was significant not only from a strategic and political standpoint but also as a crucial source of wealth for the Spanish crown. Silver extraction in Zacatecas and Guanajuato became one of the main sources of income for the empire, and much of the colonial economy revolved around mining.

Additionally, agriculture and livestock farming also developed, introducing European crops such as wheat and sugar cane, as well as animals like horses and cattle. The mixing of cultures occurred not only socially but also economically, with the introduction of new technologies and agricultural techniques.

Despite the achievements during centuries of Spanish rule, the Viceroyalty of New Spain began facing difficulties by the late 18th century.

The Industrial Revolution in Europe, Enlightenment ideas, and growing discontent among the Creole elites—who saw their political and economic opportunities limited by the Spanish administration—led to the emergence of an independence movement.

The Grito de Dolores, proclaimed by the priest Miguel Hidalgo in 1810, marked the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence, culminating in 1821 with the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba and the end of Spanish rule in the territory.