Tenochtitlan

According to the legends, the Mexica people, who would later become known as the Aztecs, spent nearly two centuries migrating. Guided by visions and prophecies, they searched for a promised land – a place marked by a divine sign.

That sign, according to legend, was a vision of an eagle perched on a cactus, devouring a snake, seen on a small, swampy island in the middle of Lake Texcoco. This, they believed, was the place foretold by their god Huitzilopochtli.

Version 1 – named after the leader, Tenoch

According to tradition, the city was named in honor of Tenoch, the respected Mexica leader who guided his people to the island in Lake Texcoco. The name Tenochtitlan is often interpreted as “place of Tenoch,” linking the city’s identity directly to its founder.

Version 2 – based on Nahuatl words

Another interpretation comes from Nahuatl roots: tetl (stone), nōchtli (prickly pear), and -tlan (place of). This version reads Tenochtitlan as “place of the prickly pear cactus on the rocks,” reflecting the legendary sign seen on the island.

Variations of the name Tenochtitlan

The name of the Mexica capital is composed of two toponyms, whose meaning has been the subject of numerous interpretations. The spelling of the name also varies depending on the source and historical period.

In many publications, the city is simply called Tenochtitlan; in others, it is referred to as Gran Tenochtitlan. Some versions include an accent (Tenochtitlán). Hernán Cortés wrote it as Temixtitán, and other variations include Tenuchtitlán, Tenustitlán, and Theonustitlán.

There is no consensus on the exact meaning of the indigenous name. Several interpretations have gained popularity and are commonly accepted both in popular culture and among scholars in academic discussions, reflecting the name’s complex history and significance.

Tenochtitlan covered between 8 and 13.5 sq km on the western edge of Lake Texcoco. The city was linked to the mainland by three causeways—north, south, and west – interrupted by bridges. These could be removed at night or during an attack to protect the city.

A network of canals crisscrossed Tenochtitlan, allowing residents to travel easily by canoe or on foot. These waterways connected neighborhoods and marketplaces, making water-based travel an essential part of daily life and shaping the city’s unique urban design.

Tlatelolco: a neighboring city-state

Tenochtitlan was not alone on the lake. Nearby, on a second island, lay Tlatelolco – a separate city-state often called Tenochtitlan’s twin city. Though politically independent, the two cities formed a closely connected urban area, similar to a modern metropolitan region.

Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco were two neighboring city-states that together formed the core urban and economic zone of the Aztec capital region. Their proximity and complementary roles made them central to the political power and vibrant trade network of the empire.

Lake Texcoco and water management

Lake Texcoco, the largest of five interconnected lakes in the Valley of Mexico, was brackish due to being in a closed basin. To keep the lake water around the city fresh, Moctezuma I ordered the construction of the “levee of Nezahualcoyotl” around 1453.

The levee stretched 12 to 16 km and kept the brackish eastern waters separate from the clean, spring-fed waters around the city.

Tenochtitlan also had two double aqueducts – over 4 km each – built from terracotta. They brought fresh water from the springs at Chapultepec. This water was mainly used for washing, while cleaner spring water from the mountains was preferred for drinking.

Spanish chronicler Bernal Díaz del Castillo described Tenochtitlan as something out of a dream. Cities rising from the lake, towers and temples made of stone – it all seemed like an enchantment. Some soldiers even wondered if what they saw was real.

The city’s layout was well organized.

Tenochtitlan was divided into four main zones, each split into 20 neighborhoods, or calpullis. Each calpulli had its streets, canals, and market. Three broad avenues connected the city to the mainland via causeways to Tepeyac, Ixtapalpa, and Tlacopan.

Markets, temples, and public life

The calpullis within Tenochtitlan each had small markets serving local neighborhoods, but the primary and most bustling marketplace was located in Tlatelolco, a separate city-state often called Tenochtitlan’s twin city, located on the nearby island of Tlatelolco.

The Tlatelolco market was the commercial heart of the region, attracting merchants, traders, and buyers from across the Aztec Empire and beyond, making it one of the largest and busiest trading centers in pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica.

Cortés claimed it was twice the size of Salamanca and saw 60,000 people trading daily. Bernal Díaz del Castillo, a soldier in Cortés’s expedition who later wrote detailed chronicles of the conquest, gave a more modest estimate of 20,000 to 40,000 traders.

At the heart of the city stood the ceremonial center, surrounded by a high wall. Inside were about 45 public buildings, including the towering Templo Mayor, temples of Quetzalcoatl and the Sun, a skull rack, ball courts, and platforms for gladiatorial sacrifices.

Palaces and advanced city planning

Just outside the temple area was the palace of Moctezuma, with over 100 rooms, each with its bath—meant for nobles and foreign ambassadors. Nearby stood the cuicalli (house of song) and the calmecac, where priests and nobles’ children were educated.

Tenochtitlan’s symmetry and layout weren’t accidental. A city official called the calmimilocatl oversaw all construction to ensure harmony in design, maintaining balance across temples, homes, markets, and canals.

Zoos, gardens, and aquariums

Moctezuma II’s palace featured two zoos – one for birds of prey and another for animals, reptiles, and exotic birds. Around 300 caretakers worked there. The palace also had a botanical garden and aquariums with both salt and fresh water, housing fish and aquatic birds.

Similar gardens and zoological areas existed in nearby cities like Texcoco, Chapultepec, Huaxtepec (now Oaxtepec), and Texcotzingo, showing the importance the Aztecs placed on nature, science, and public display.

Tenochtitlan had one of the most complex social systems in Mesoamerica. Society was divided into several classes. Commoners, called macehualtin, lived outside the city center and formed the backbone of the empire through farming and labor.

These included several distinct social statuses:

• Macehualtin – commoners, farmers, and laborers
• Pipiltin – nobles, descendants of rulers
• Cuauhpipiltin – commoners who became nobles through military merit
• Teteuctin – high-ranking rulers, including the emperor
• Tlacohtin – debt servants who temporarily sold their labor
• Pochteca – hereditary merchant class with trade privileges

The pipiltin were nobles – relatives of past rulers – who lived within the island city. Some commoners, known as cuauhpipiltin (eagle nobles), earned noble status through bravery in battle and gained privileges usually reserved for the elite.

At the top were the teteuctin, rulers of different regions, including the emperor. At the bottom were the tlacohtin, people who became debt servants. They were not lifelong slaves and had more rights than slaves in many other ancient cultures.

A unique class called pochteca were merchants who traded across Mesoamerica. Though their status was inherited, they could become wealthy. They didn’t pay taxes but had to sponsor the Xocotl Huetzi festival with their trade profits.

Status was shown in housing. Poor families lived in reed-and-mud homes with thatched roofs. Middle classes had adobe homes with flat roofs, while the elite lived in stone houses, often grouped around inner courtyards in palace-like compounds.

Adding more depth was the calpolli system – groups of families connected by blood or neighborhood. Elites gave land and jobs to commoners, while commoners paid tribute and performed labor. This created strong social and economic bonds.

Origins and foundation

Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people around 1325 on an island in Lake Texcoco. Guided by a prophecy, they chose the site where they saw an eagle perched on a cactus, eating a snake – a powerful symbol still used in Mexico today.

The Mexica were latecomers to the Valley of Mexico and had to settle on less desirable land. Over time, they adapted by building chinampas (floating gardens) and causeways. Their resourcefulness helped them grow quickly despite the initial challenges.

Growth of the Aztec capital

Tenochtitlan expanded through military alliances and conquests. As the head of the Aztec Triple Alliance, it grew in power and influence, overshadowing neighboring city-states and becoming the dominant force in the region.

By the early 1500s, the city had hundreds of thousands of residents. Its strategic location, advanced infrastructure, and military success allowed it to become the political and economic center of the Aztec Empire.

Social, political, and economic development

Aztec society was highly organized. At the top was the tlatoani (ruler), followed by nobles, priests, warriors, and commoners. Each group had specific duties, and social mobility was possible through military success or priestly service.

The economy was based on agriculture, tribute, and trade. Markets like the one in Tlatelolco offered goods from across Mesoamerica. Trade routes stretched far, connecting Tenochtitlan with regions producing obsidian, cacao, and more.

Cultural and religious significance

Tenochtitlan was a religious center with many temples and ceremonial spaces. The Templo Mayor was the heart of the city, dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, gods of war and rain. Rituals and offerings were a daily part of life.

Religion influenced all aspects of Aztec culture. Art, festivals, and education reflected cosmic beliefs. The calendar system, astronomy, and myths helped guide both political rule and everyday decisions in the empire’s capital.

First contact with Hernán Cortés and his expedition

In 1519, Hernán Cortés arrived on the Gulf Coast with a small Spanish force. After founding Veracruz, he advanced inland, driven by tales of a rich empire. The Aztecs, led by Moctezuma II, were aware of their arrival and watched with concern.

Cortés made contact with emissaries of Moctezuma, exchanging gifts and messages. The Mexica saw the Spaniards as powerful, possibly divine. Moctezuma sent gold and fine items, hoping to appease them, but it only fueled Spanish ambition.

Initial alliances and tensions with local groups

Cortés allied with the Totonacs and later the Tlaxcalans, fierce rivals of the Aztecs. These groups saw the Spanish as a chance to weaken Aztec control. Their support gave Cortés local knowledge, warriors, and legitimacy in the region.

While some indigenous groups welcomed Cortés, others resisted. Skirmishes occurred along the way. Still, by skillfully forming alliances and exploiting divisions, the Spanish advanced steadily toward the heart of the empire, Tenochtitlan.

Battles and negotiations

Upon entering Tenochtitlan in late 1519, Cortés was welcomed by Moctezuma. But tensions rose quickly. The Spaniards took Moctezuma hostage, aiming to control the city through him, while unrest grew among the Mexica nobility and people.

In 1520, violence erupted. The massacre at the Templo Mayor during a festival sparked rebellion. Moctezuma died soon after, killed either by his people or under Spanish pressure. The Spaniards fled in defeat during the chaotic “Noche Triste“.

The siege of Tenochtitlan

Cortés regrouped, built alliances, and returned in 1521 with a large indigenous army. They surrounded Tenochtitlan, blocking supplies and using brigantines to control the lake. The siege lasted 3 brutal months, causing starvation and disease.

Aztec warriors fought fiercely, defending their capital street by street. But the city’s isolation, hunger, and waves of attacks took a toll. Water and food ran out. The once-great city was crumbling, as thousands died or fell to illness.

Fall of the city and collapse of the Aztec Empire

On August 13, 1521, Tenochtitlan fell. Cuauhtémoc, the last Aztec emperor, was captured. The city was in ruins. The Spanish victory marked the end of the Aztec Empire and the beginning of colonial rule under the Spanish Crown.

Spaniards besieged Tenochtitlan for 75 days (May to August 1521), causing famine and devastation. After the fall, Cortés ordered the city’s destruction and began rebuilding it with a Spanish central district called the traza.

With the empire shattered, Spain quickly took control. Temples were destroyed, treasures looted, and a new capital – Mexico City – rose over the ruins. Indigenous life was forever changed, marking the start of a new, turbulent era.

Rebuilding and transformation under Spanish rule

After the conquest, the Spanish began reshaping Tenochtitlan. Temples were torn down, canals filled in, and European-style buildings rose. Spanish churches, palaces, and plazas replaced Aztec structures as part of a vast urban transformation.

Forced labor and tribute supported construction. Indigenous people were made to build churches atop former temples. Colonial institutions, such as churches and courts, were established to impose Christianity and Spanish authority.

Establishment of Mexico City on the ruins of Tenochtitlan

Mexico City was officially founded in 1524 atop Tenochtitlan’s ruins. The Spaniards used the city’s strategic location and infrastructure but redesigned it with Spanish-style grids, stone roads, and central squares, like the Plaza Mayor.

The city became the capital of New Spain, a major colonial hub in the Americas. Over time, it grew into a vibrant but deeply unequal city, blending Spanish culture with surviving indigenous traditions under colonial dominance.

After the Spanish conquest, much of Lake Texcoco was drained to build the new city and prevent flooding. This removal of water caused the soft lakebed to dry and compact unevenly, worsening the sinking and tilting of ancient structures beneath Mexico City.

Today, many parts of modern Mexico City sit directly over the ancient Aztec capital.

The Zócalo, Mexico’s main plaza, stands where Tenochtitlan’s central square and marketplace once thrived. Several original causeways, or calzadas, still align with present-day streets, connecting the past and present of Mexico City.

Tenochtitlan’s legacy deeply influences Mexican identity today. Its history is celebrated in art, education, and festivals, reminding people of the Aztecs’ advanced urban planning and culture. The city’s story continues to inspire pride and a connection to indigenous roots.